Everyone has heard that college is supposed to be the best years of your life. It’s a time of learning, exploration and adventure, filled with social activities and a desire to experience everything campus life offers. However, during your time as a student, you may witness harassment, assault, violence or other concerning behaviors. It’s crucial to know what to do when faced with these situations.

College campuses are busy, with events happening everywhere: academic spaces, dorms or off-campus establishments. This constant activity, combined with the presence of many people, can hinder us from stepping in when we see concerning behaviors. This is known as the bystander effect, a psychological phenomenon where individuals are less likely to intervene in a crisis when others are present.

The bystander effect first gained public attention after the 1964 murder of Kitty Genovese, when reports claimed numerous witnesses did not intervene even after hearing her scream for help. Later, psychologists John Darley and Bibb Latané confirmed through experiments that people act more quickly and decisively when alone than in groups.

Traditionally, researchers explained the bystander effect with social and cognitive factors: diffusion of responsibility, pluralistic ignorance (assuming nothing is wrong because others aren’t reacting) and fear of social judgment. However, newer studies in neuroscience and personality psychology reveal an additional, deeper layer: our brains may trigger automatic, reflexive responses in emergencies that can either support or block helping behavior.

Functional MRI studies show that when people see an emergency, key brain regions for preparing to help, like the medial prefrontal cortex, become less active if more bystanders are present. This suggests that inaction is not always a conscious choice; sometimes it’s a reflex shaped by the situation and by personality traits.

When the bystander effect is happening, there are two emotional systems at play. The first, linked to personal distress, triggers the fight-freeze-flight response, often leading to avoidance rather than action. The second, linked to sympathy, emerges more slowly and supports helping behavior. Everyone has both systems, but the balance between them varies from person to person. Those with higher levels of personal distress are more likely to freeze or hold back in emergencies, especially when surrounded by others. Conversely, people with stronger sympathy responses may act regardless of crowd presence.

This means that overcoming the bystander effect isn’t just about theoretically knowing what to do, it’s also about regulating that initial distress response and activating sympathy more quickly. Training, mental rehearsal and experience can help tip the balance toward action.

Now that you know the psychology behind it, here are some tips that may help you overcome the bystander effect.

1. Call someone out directly: When in a medical emergency, for example, you can say “You in the red shirt—call 911!” to counter diffusion of responsibility.
2. Be mindful of ambiguity: If you’re unsure if someone needs help, ask loudly, “Is everything okay?” It’s better to be seen as strange for asking than for someone else to suffer harm because you were afraid to check in.
3. Educate yourself: Take a first aid class to boost your ability and confidence. While you still will need to decide to intervene when faced with the situation, it’s more likely that muscle memory will take over if you’ve already practiced intervening.
4. Trust your gut: If something feels wrong, act on it. Our brains process more information than we can consciously acknowledge, so if you feel that something is not right, it may be your subconscious keeping you and others safe.
5. Model the behavior: When you help, others are more likely to follow your lead.
6. Use distraction: If direct action or intervention feels too risky or unsafe, you can break tension with a safe diversion. A simple, “Hey, can I talk to you for a second?” can diffuse tension and give others the opportunity to take a step back from the situation.

The bystander effect may be rooted in both our social environment and our biology, but it’s not inevitable. By understanding the psychology, neuroscience and personality factors that drive it, and by practicing ways to respond, you can move from passive observer to upstander, someone who acts when action matters most.

At NC State, we all play a role in creating a safe, supportive community. To learn more about becoming an active bystander, visit https://vptm.ehps.ncsu.edu. Violence prevention is a community effort, and together, we can make a difference!

Sources and Additional Research

• American Psychological Association. “Bystander Intervention Tip Sheet.” Apa.org, 2022.
• Campos-Mercade, Pol. “The Volunteer’s Dilemma Explains the Bystander Effect.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, vol. 186, Dec. 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2020.11.012.
• Hortensius R, de Gelder B. From Empathy to Apathy: The Bystander Effect Revisited. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2018 Aug;27(4):249-256. doi: 10.1177/0963721417749653. Epub 2018 Aug 1. PMID: 30166777; PMCID: PMC6099971.
• “Overcoming the Bystander Effect.” American Scientist, 25 Aug. 2017, www.americanscientist.org/article/overcoming-the-bystander-effect
• “What Is the Bystander Effect?” British Red Cross, www.redcross.org.uk/stories/health-and-social-care/first-aid/what-is-the-bystander-effect .

This project was made possible by funding from the U.S. Department of Homeland Security’s Center for Prevention Programs and Partnerships, opportunity number DHS-24-TTP-132-00-01.